Geological CO₂ storage assessment in emerging CCS regions: Review of sequestration potential, policy development, and socio-economic factors in Poland

Emerging carbon capture and storage (CCS) markets face critical challenges in developing systematic methodologies to assess geological CO₂ storage potential under conditions of limited data availability, evolving regulatory frameworks, and nascent infrastructure development. This study establishes an integrated assessment framework for lower-maturity CCS regions that combines geological characterization, storage capacity assessment, regulatory analysis, and socio-economic evaluation through a structured approach adaptable to diverse global contexts. Poland serves as a representative case study, with its coal-reliant economy exemplifying the decarbonization challenges facing emerging regions while meeting European Union climate mandates, and its geological setting offering substantial sequestration opportunities across three major sedimentary regions. Through multidisciplinary analysis synthesizing scattered geological data, policy developments, CCUS value chain dynamics, and stakeholder perspectives, we systematically evaluate CO₂ storage potential and demonstrate framework application. Analysis reveals that onshore saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon fields provide significant storage capacity, while offshore Baltic Basin sites face logistical and environmental regulatory constraints. Current assessments encounter limitations including sparse data, restricted research access, and inadequate industry-academia collaboration, preventing basin-scale analyses from advancing to higher storage readiness levels and undermining business decision-making reliability. This study contributes a replicable methodology extending beyond Poland to lower-maturity CCS regions worldwide, providing decision-makers with tools for storage assessment, policy development, and stakeholder engagement that support evidence-based deployment strategies. Success in emerging markets requires coordinated advancement across technical characterization, regulatory clarity, infrastructure development, and public engagement, with transparent governance and inclusive community participation as critical enablers for sustainable CCS implementation.