Abstract
Wind energy is a cornerstone of the global transition to low-carbon energy systems. While its contribution to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is well established, its broader environmental impacts – particularly on biodiversity – remain underexplored in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies. LCA is a widely applied framework for evaluating the environmental impacts of a product or a service throughout its entire life cycle. Its holistic approach enables the comparison of multiple impact categories, the identification of trade-offs, and the detection of unintentional problem-shifting. Traditional LCA applications in renewable energy often emphasise climate change metrics, neglecting biodiversity loss, which is largely driven by land and ocean use. For instance, while large-scale wind development contributes to reducing GHG emissions, it can negatively affect birds through collision, disturbance, and habitat loss. Recent modelling developments now enable the inclusion of biodiversity impacts on affected species groups within the LCA framework. We propose here a critical review and synthesis of emerging approaches to integrate biodiversity impacts into the LCA framework for wind power. We focus on the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase, where processes from the life cycle inventory are translated into comparable impact indicators. We review available LCIA models that estimate the biodiversity impacts of offshore and onshore wind farms, examining their impact pathways, units, geographical regions, and taxonomic groups. Despite these advances, several challenges persist. Many LCIA models are not yet integrated into mainstream LCA software, and essential inventory data – such as species distributions, migration routes, and auditory sensitivity – are often missing or difficult to obtain. We identify the current gaps and challenges, and propose a roadmap for integrating biodiversity into wind LCAs.